The Complete Guide to the Cheeses of the World: A Journey Through History, Culture, and Flavor

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I have a confession: wherever Peter and I travel, I try to order a charcuterie board. It’s become something of a tradition—whether we’re at a cozy restaurant in Stowe, Vermont, a wine bar in Burlington, or even just exploring new places closer to home. There’s something about seeing how different regions showcase their local cheeses that fascinates me. Each board tells a story about the place it comes from.

That curiosity about regional cheese led me down a wonderful path of discovery. I learned about Vermont’s distinctive sharp cheddars with their characteristic “bite,” and that eventually led me to explore English farmhouse cheddars, Irish Dubliner, Canadian aged varieties, and so many others. Each cheese opened a window into a different culture, a different landscape, and centuries of accumulated knowledge passed down through generations.

The more I learned, the more I realized that cheese is so much more than just a food. It’s one of humanity’s oldest preserved foods, dating back over 7,000 years. It’s been a survival tool, a trading commodity, a symbol of regional identity, and a source of immense pride for the people who make it. From ancient Mesopotamian shepherds to medieval monks to modern artisan cheesemakers, people have devoted themselves to perfecting this remarkable transformation of milk into something that can be stored, transported, and savored.

This guide is my attempt to share what I’ve discovered on this journey. We’ll travel from ancient origins to modern cheese boards, explore the science that makes cheese possible, tour the world’s great cheese-producing regions, and learn practical tips for selecting, storing, and serving cheese at home. Whether you’re just beginning to explore cheese beyond the supermarket basics or you’re already a devoted cheese enthusiast, I hope you’ll discover something new and delicious along the way.

Table of Contents

The Ancient Story of Cheese

How Cheese Was Born: The Happy Accident

The origin of cheese is shrouded in legend, but the most popular story goes something like this: An ancient traveler, preparing for a journey across the desert, filled a pouch made from a sheep’s stomach with milk. The combination of the rennet naturally present in the stomach lining, the jostling movement of travel, and the warmth of the sun caused the milk to separate into curds and whey. When the traveler stopped to drink, instead of milk, they discovered the curds—the first cheese.

It’s a charming story, and while we can’t know if it happened exactly that way, the basic premise makes sense. What we do know from archaeological evidence is that humans have been making cheese for at least 7,000 years. Pottery fragments with small holes—cheese strainers—have been found in Poland and along the Dalmatian coast of Croatia, dating back over seven millennia. Some of these ancient strainers even contained dried residue that chemical analysis confirmed was cheese.

The earliest documented evidence of organized cheesemaking comes from Mesopotamia, in the region known as the Fertile Crescent (modern-day Iraq and surrounding areas). A frieze at the Temple of Ninhursag, dating to around 3000 BCE, shows the process of making cheese. Clay tablets from the ancient Sumerian city of Ur record inventories of cheese and butter stores, suggesting that cheese was already an important commodity.

But why did cheese matter so much to these ancient peoples? The answer lies in a problem that most humans of that era faced: lactose intolerance. Fresh milk was difficult for many adults to digest, but the cheesemaking process transforms lactose into lactic acid, making it much easier on the stomach. Additionally, cheese could be preserved through salting and drying, allowing these ancient civilizations to store nutrition for lean times. In an era before refrigeration, cheese was a survival advantage—a way to capture the nutrition of milk in a form that wouldn’t spoil quickly. These early cheeses probably tasted somewhat salty and sour, with a texture similar to modern feta or cottage cheese.

Cheese in Ancient Civilizations

As civilizations developed, so did cheesemaking techniques. The ancient Egyptians were making cheese by 2000 BCE—we know this from tomb murals that depict the process. Egyptian texts describe using reed mats to strain curds, creating something similar to cottage cheese. In 2018, archaeologists discovered what may be the oldest known cheese in an Egyptian tomb at Saqqara, dating back around 3,200 years.

By the time of ancient Greece, cheese had become celebrated in literature and daily life. Homer referenced cheese in both the Iliad and the Odyssey—there’s a memorable scene where the Cyclops Polyphemus tends to his cheesemaking in his cave, pouring curdled milk into woven baskets. The Greeks developed feta, which remains a cornerstone of Greek cuisine to this day. Greek mythology even credited the god Aristaeus with the discovery of cheese.

The Romans, however, really elevated cheesemaking to an art form. They developed new tools like cheese molds and presses that allowed for greater control over the final product. Cheese became sophisticated and varied—the Romans made both soft fresh cheeses and aged hard varieties. They even had a special kitchen, the caseale, devoted entirely to cheesemaking. Perhaps most importantly, the Roman legions carried cheese as a standard ration, and as the empire expanded across Europe, Roman cheesemaking knowledge spread with it. Cheese from various regions was transported to Rome to satisfy the tastes of the social elite, creating one of history’s first international cheese trades.

The Middle Ages: Monks and Innovation

After the fall of Rome, cheesemaking in Europe entered a quieter period. For several centuries, it remained primarily a local, farm-based activity. Then something interesting happened: monasteries became centers of cheese innovation.

Medieval monks had several advantages when it came to cheesemaking. They had time—the contemplative life of a monastery allowed for the patience that great cheese requires. They had resources—monasteries often owned extensive lands with grazing cattle, sheep, or goats. They had literacy—monks kept detailed records of their methods, allowing techniques to be refined and passed down reliably. And crucially, they had motivation: many monastic orders observed periods when eating meat was forbidden, making cheese an important source of protein.

During the Middle Ages, monks perfected the production of cheeses that we still enjoy today. Roquefort, the famous blue cheese from southern France, has been made in caves near the village of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon since at least the 11th century. Munster, from the Vosges mountains, was developed by Irish monks who had settled in the Alsace region. Limburger originated in Belgian monasteries. The techniques developed in these religious communities laid the foundation for many of Europe’s greatest cheeses.

By the late Middle Ages, many of the cheeses we know today were being produced: Cheddar in England, Parmigiano-Reggiano in Italy, Gouda in the Netherlands, and countless others. Cheese had become an important trade commodity, with certain regions gaining reputations for their distinctive styles. However, this tradition faced a setback in Britain when Henry VIII closed the monasteries in the 1530s, temporarily disrupting centuries of accumulated cheesemaking knowledge. Fortunately, the craft survived, often kept alive by farmhouse producers who continued traditional methods.

The Science of Cheesemaking

From Milk to Curd: The Basic Process

At its heart, cheesemaking is a remarkably simple process—it’s essentially controlled spoilage. You’re encouraging beneficial bacteria and molds to transform milk into something more stable and flavorful. While different cheeses involve variations in technique, nearly all cheese starts with the same four basic ingredients: milk, cultures, coagulant, and salt.

The milk can come from various animals. Cow’s milk is the most common globally, with its mild, slightly sweet flavor and creamy consistency. Goat’s milk produces tangier cheeses with a distinctive funky quality that some people love. Sheep’s milk is richer and fattier, creating luxuriously creamy cheeses. Water buffalo milk makes the best mozzarella—that’s why true Mozzarella di Bufala is so prized. Some regions even use milk from yaks, camels, or reindeer. Each type of milk brings its own character to the final cheese.

The cheesemaking process begins with acidification. Starter cultures—beneficial bacteria like Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, or Streptococcus—are added to the milk. These bacteria consume the lactose (milk sugar) and produce lactic acid, which lowers the pH of the milk. This acidification is crucial—it sets the stage for the milk proteins to coagulate properly and helps prevent harmful bacteria from taking hold.

Next comes coagulation—the moment when liquid milk transforms into something more solid. Traditionally, this is done by adding rennet, an enzyme that comes from the stomach lining of young calves (though vegetarian and microbial rennets are now commonly used as well). Rennet causes the casein proteins in milk to link together, forming a gel-like structure that traps the fat and other nutrients. After about 30 minutes, the milk has transformed into something resembling custard or soft tofu.

Once the curd has formed, it’s cut into pieces with wire knives. Cutting the curd releases whey—the liquid portion that separates out. Smaller cuts release more whey, creating a firmer, drier cheese; larger cuts retain more moisture, making a softer cheese. The curds are then often heated gently and stirred, which helps them release even more whey and develop the desired texture. Finally, salt is added, which serves multiple purposes: it seasons the cheese, helps control moisture levels, inhibits unwanted bacterial growth, and contributes to flavor development during aging.

What Makes Each Cheese Different

If all cheese starts with roughly the same process, why do we have thousands of different varieties? The answer lies in the details—small variations in technique, timing, temperature, and aging create dramatically different results.

Moisture content is perhaps the most fundamental factor in determining what kind of cheese you’ll end up with. Fresh cheeses like ricotta and cottage cheese retain lots of moisture—as much as 80% of their weight. Semi-soft cheeses like Havarti have moderate moisture content, around 45-50%. Hard cheeses like Parmigiano-Reggiano can be as little as 30% moisture. This matters because moisture content affects texture, shelf life, and how the cheese will behave when you cook with it.

Then there’s aging, also called ripening or affinage. During aging, enzymes break down proteins and fats, developing complex flavors and changing the texture. A young cheese might be mild and slightly rubbery; that same cheese aged for a year becomes sharp, crumbly, and intensely flavorful. Temperature and humidity during aging are carefully controlled—too warm or too humid and you risk unwanted mold or bacterial growth; too cold or too dry and the cheese won’t develop properly.

Rinds tell their own story. Some cheeses develop natural rinds as they age, where the surface dries and forms a protective barrier. Washed-rind cheeses are bathed in brine, beer, wine, or spirits during aging, encouraging specific bacteria to grow and creating those pungent, orangish rinds. Bloomy-rind cheeses like Brie are sprayed with specific molds that create that characteristic white fuzzy coating. Some cheeses are wrapped in leaves, cloth, or wax to protect them as they age.

And then there’s terroir—a French concept that captures how a place affects a product. The type of grass the animals eat, the local climate, even the specific bacteria naturally present in a region’s air and caves, all contribute to a cheese’s final character. This is why a Comté made in the Jura mountains tastes different from attempts to replicate it elsewhere, even when following the same recipe. The place itself is part of the recipe.

The Magic of Cultures and Molds

When I first learned about the role of bacteria and molds in cheesemaking, I’ll admit I found it slightly unsettling. We’re so conditioned to think of bacteria and mold as things to avoid in our food. But cheese is a reminder that not all microorganisms are harmful—in fact, some are essential to creating the foods we love.

The beneficial bacteria that cheesemakers rely on—species like Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus helveticus, and Streptococcus thermophilus—are hardworking allies. They consume lactose and produce lactic acid, which not only gives cheese its characteristic tang but also creates an acidic environment that hostile bacteria can’t survive in. Different combinations of these bacteria create different flavor profiles, which is one reason why recipes for cheese are so closely guarded.

Blue cheeses owe their distinctive appearance and flavor to a specific mold: Penicillium roqueforti. This mold needs oxygen to grow, which is why cheesemakers pierce wheels of blue cheese with long needles, creating air channels where the mold can spread throughout the interior. The result is those striking blue-green veins and a sharp, complex flavor that blue cheese lovers crave. Interestingly, Penicillium roqueforti is related to the mold used to produce penicillin, though they’re not the same species.

Bloomy-rind cheeses like Brie and Camembert get their white, fuzzy coating from Penicillium candidum. This mold is sprayed onto the surface of young cheese, where it grows in a thin layer. As the cheese ages, enzymes from the mold work their way inward, gradually breaking down the interior from the outside in. This is why a perfectly ripe Brie is creamy right up to the rind—the mold has done its work.

Washed-rind cheeses develop their characteristic strong smell thanks to Brevibacterium linens, a bacterium that thrives in the salty, moist environment created by washing the cheese regularly with brine or alcohol. These bacteria produce compounds that smell quite pungent—earthy, barnyard-like aromas that can be off-putting to some people. Here’s the interesting thing, though: these cheeses often taste much milder than they smell. The aroma comes from compounds on the surface, while the interior paste can be surprisingly creamy and mild.

Some artisan cheesemakers still rely on wild fermentation, letting whatever bacteria and molds are naturally present in their environment do the work. This is a riskier approach—results can be inconsistent—but it’s also how many traditional farmhouse cheeses were originally made, and it can create cheeses with unique, unreplicable character. Most modern cheesemakers use carefully selected and cultivated strains of bacteria and molds, which provides more predictable results while still allowing for tremendous variety.

Cheese Classification Made Simple

With thousands of cheese varieties in the world, it helps to have a system for understanding them. While there’s no single universal way to classify cheese, one of the most useful approaches is to group them by moisture content and texture, from soft to hard. This system isn’t perfect—many cheeses blur the lines between categories—but it provides a helpful framework.

Fresh Cheese: Young and Mild

Fresh cheeses are the youngest members of the cheese family. They’re unaged (or aged for just a few days), which means they have high moisture content—often 70-80% of their weight is water. This gives them a soft, spreadable, or crumbly texture and a mild, slightly tangy flavor. Because they contain so much moisture, fresh cheeses have a relatively short shelf life and need to be refrigerated.

Think of cheeses like ricotta, with its grainy, slightly sweet character that’s perfect for lasagna or cannoli filling. Cottage cheese, with its distinct curds, makes a protein-rich breakfast or snack. Cream cheese is smooth and spreadable, essential for bagels and cheesecakes. Mascarpone is luxuriously rich and creamy, the star ingredient in tiramisu. Fresh mozzarella, pulled and shaped while still warm, has that delicate milky flavor and soft texture. Queso fresco crumbles beautifully over tacos and salads. Paneer, the firm Indian cheese, holds its shape when cooked and soaks up the flavors of spices.

Fresh cheeses are wonderfully versatile. They’re mild enough to work in both sweet and savory dishes, they spread easily, and they can be used in cooking without becoming greasy or separating. If you’re new to cheese, fresh varieties are often the most approachable starting point.

Soft-Ripened Cheese: Creamy Luxury

Soft-ripened cheeses, also called bloomy-rind cheeses, are where things start to get more interesting. These cheeses are sprayed with Penicillium candidum mold after they’re formed, which creates that characteristic white, fuzzy rind. The mold doesn’t just sit on the surface—it actively breaks down the interior of the cheese from the outside in, creating that creamy, sometimes almost liquid texture near the rind.

Brie is probably the most famous example—when perfectly ripe, it should be creamy throughout, with a mild, buttery, slightly mushroomy flavor. Camembert is similar but often a bit stronger and earthier. Triple-crèmes like Brillat-Savarin have extra cream added before cheesemaking begins, resulting in an extraordinarily rich, almost butter-like texture.

These cheeses continue to ripen after you buy them, which means timing matters. An underripe Brie will be firm and chalky in the center; an overripe one might have an ammonia-like smell and runny, almost bitter interior. The sweet spot is when the cheese is uniformly creamy but still holds its shape, with no ammonia smell. These cheeses are best served at room temperature, which allows the fats to soften and the flavors to fully develop.

Semi-Soft to Semi-Hard: The Versatile Middle

This broad category includes many of the cheeses you probably use most often in your kitchen. They have moderate moisture content, which gives them enough structure to slice cleanly but enough softness to melt smoothly. They’re the workhorses of the cheese world.

Havarti is buttery and mild with small irregular holes, melting beautifully in sandwiches. Gouda, especially young Gouda, is sweet and mild with a slight nuttiness—the longer it’s aged, the harder and more complex it becomes. Fontina melts exceptionally well, making it perfect for fondues and gratins. Young Manchego from Spain is firm enough to slice but still tender, with a distinctive tanginess. Monterey Jack is quintessentially American, mild and creamy, often studded with jalapeños for Pepper Jack.

These are the cheeses I reach for when I’m making grilled cheese sandwiches, topping burgers, or adding to a breakfast omelet. They’re flavorful enough to be interesting but not so strong that they overwhelm other ingredients. They’re also generally affordable and widely available, making them practical for everyday cooking.

Hard and Extra-Hard: Aged to Perfection

Hard cheeses are the marathon runners of the cheese world—they’ve been aged for months or even years, during which time they lose moisture and develop intense, concentrated flavors. The texture becomes firm and sometimes crumbly, and you’ll often see those small white specks or crystals that are actually calcium lactate, formed as the cheese ages and loses moisture. Far from being a defect, these crystals are a sign of a well-aged, quality cheese.

Aged cheddar develops sharp, complex flavors that can range from nutty to slightly bitter, depending on how long it’s been aged and where it comes from. (I’ve written extensively about cheddar from around the world if you want to dive deeper into that particular cheese’s story.) Parmigiano-Reggiano, often called the “king of cheeses,” is aged for a minimum of 12 months and often much longer, developing a granular texture and deeply savory, almost fruity flavor. Pecorino Romano, made from sheep’s milk, is intensely salty and sharp. Aged Gouda becomes firm and caramel-sweet with crunchy crystals. Gruyère is nutty and complex, essential for proper fondue.

These cheeses shine when grated over pasta or risotto, shaved over salads, or savored on their own with a glass of wine. Because their flavors are so concentrated, a little goes a long way. They also have impressive shelf life—properly stored, a hard cheese can last for months in your refrigerator. The rinds from these hard cheeses are also incredibly useful in cooking, adding deep, savory flavor to soups and sauces.

A World Tour of Cheese: Regional Traditions and Specialties

Every cheese-producing region has its own story, shaped by geography, climate, history, and local tradition. The grasses that grow in mountain pastures taste different from those in coastal valleys, and those differences show up in the milk and ultimately in the cheese. Local cheesemaking techniques evolved over centuries, adapting to what worked best in each particular place. Let’s take a journey around the world’s great cheese regions.

France: The Undisputed Cheese Capital

There’s a famous quote attributed to Charles de Gaulle: “How can you govern a country which has 246 varieties of cheese?” The actual number is much higher—France produces over 1,600 different types of cheese. This incredible diversity reflects France’s varied landscapes, from the lush pastures of Normandy to the alpine peaks of the Savoie, and a deep cultural commitment to artisan food production that goes back centuries.

France’s cheese tradition is protected by a rigorous system of designations. AOC (Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée) and its European equivalent AOP (Appellation d’Origine Protégée), along with PDO (Protected Designation of Origin), are labels that guarantee a cheese was made in a specific region using traditional methods. These aren’t just marketing terms—they’re legally binding standards that specify everything from what the animals can eat to how long the cheese must age. When you see these labels, you know you’re getting an authentic product made the way it has been for generations.

In Normandy, the rolling green pastures produce rich milk that’s perfect for soft, creamy cheeses. Camembert de Normandie is the most famous, with its bloomy white rind and creamy interior that becomes almost liquid when perfectly ripe. Nearby, Pont-l’Évêque offers a washed-rind alternative with a stronger aroma and distinctive square shape. Livarot, another Norman cheese, is nicknamed “The Colonel” because the strips of dried grass wrapped around it during aging resemble military stripes.

Just east of Normandy lies the Île-de-France region, home to Brie de Meaux and Brie de Melun. These are the original Bries—not to be confused with the milder, stabilized versions often found in supermarkets. True French Brie is made with raw milk and has a more complex, earthy flavor. Legend has it that Brie de Meaux was declared “the king of cheeses” at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

The Loire Valley, with its moderate climate and diverse terrain, is renowned for goat cheeses. French chèvre comes in many forms: fresh and spreadable, aged until firm and crumbly, coated in ash, or wrapped in leaves. Crottin de Chavignol starts its life mild and creamy but becomes harder and more pungent with age. Sainte-Maure de Touraine is shaped into a log with a straw running through its center for support. Selles-sur-Cher is dusted with salted charcoal, giving it a distinctive gray appearance.

In Burgundy, Époisses reigns as one of France’s most pungent cheeses. This washed-rind cheese is bathed in Marc de Bourgogne (a local brandy made from grape pomace) during its aging, which encourages the growth of bacteria that give the cheese its characteristic orange rind and powerful aroma. It was reportedly a favorite of Napoleon, and when perfectly ripe, it’s so soft you can eat it with a spoon.

The Franche-Comté region in eastern France produces Comté, one of the country’s most beloved cheeses. Made in huge wheels weighing around 80 pounds, Comté is aged for a minimum of four months but often much longer—sometimes up to three years. The flavor varies by season, depending on what the cows were eating: summer Comté, made when cows graze on flower-filled alpine meadows, tastes noticeably different from winter Comté, when the cows eat hay. This same region produces Morbier, easily recognized by the thin line of ash running through its center—a vestige of the traditional practice of covering the morning’s curds with ash before adding the evening’s batch.

The Auvergne region in south-central France is home to some of France’s oldest cheeses. Saint-Nectaire has been made here since the 17th century, with a supple texture and earthy, mushroomy flavor. Cantal, sometimes called “French cheddar” (though it predates English cheddar by centuries), is firm and tangy, perfect for melting. Bleu d’Auvergne is a creamy blue cheese that’s milder than Roquefort.

Speaking of Roquefort, this legendary blue cheese comes from the Aveyron region in southern France. By law, it must be aged in the natural Combalou caves near the village of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon, where unique air currents create the perfect environment for Penicillium roqueforti to thrive. The cheese itself is made from sheep’s milk, giving it a creamier texture and more complex flavor than most cow’s milk blue cheeses. It’s been protected by French law since 1925 and by European law since 1996—the first cheese to receive such protection.

In the French Alps, the Savoie region produces mountain cheeses that reflect the alpine environment. Reblochon is soft and creamy, traditionally used in tartiflette, a hearty dish of potatoes, bacon, and cheese. Beaufort, called “the prince of Gruyères,” is a firm, fruity cheese made in enormous wheels. Tomme de Savoie is a semi-firm cheese with a rustic gray rind, perfect for melting into fondue alongside Beaufort and Comté.

Italy: Ancient Traditions Meet Modern Passion

Italian cheese has a history that stretches back to ancient Rome and remains deeply woven into Italian culture today. Like France, Italy protects its traditional cheeses through the DOP (Denominazione di Origine Protetta) system, which ensures that cheeses are made in specific regions using time-honored methods.

In Northern Italy, particularly the Emilia-Romagna and Lombardy regions, you’ll find Parmigiano-Reggiano—often called “the king of cheeses.” This is nothing like the powdered “parmesan” that comes in a shaker; real Parmigiano-Reggiano is a revelation. It’s aged for a minimum of 12 months, but the best examples are aged 24, 36, or even 48 months, developing complex flavors that are simultaneously nutty, fruity, and deeply savory. Those white crystals you find in aged Parmigiano aren’t salt—they’re tyrosine crystals, formed as proteins break down during aging. Each wheel is enormous, weighing around 80 pounds, and is inspected by experts who tap it with special hammers to ensure it’s aging properly. Only wheels that meet strict standards get branded with the official DOP mark.

Grana Padano, also from Northern Italy, is similar to Parmigiano-Reggiano but slightly less strict in its production requirements and often a bit milder. It’s still a wonderful cheese, aged for at least 9 months and perfect for grating over pasta or risotto.

Gorgonzola, Italy’s famous blue cheese, comes from the Piedmont and Lombardy regions. There are two main types: Gorgonzola Dolce (sweet) is creamy and relatively mild, while Gorgonzola Piccante (spicy/sharp) is aged longer and has a more crumbly texture and stronger flavor. According to legend, Gorgonzola was discovered accidentally in the town of the same name when a cheesemaker left fresh curd overnight and added new curd to it the next morning, creating the conditions for the blue mold to develop.

Taleggio, from Lombardy, is a washed-rind cheese with a thin, pinkish-orange crust and creamy, slightly tangy interior. Despite its strong aroma, the flavor is surprisingly mild and fruity. Fontina, from the Valle d’Aosta in the Italian Alps, is semi-soft with a nutty, slightly sweet flavor and melts beautifully, making it essential for authentic Italian fondue.

Moving to Central Italy, we encounter the Pecorino family—cheeses made from sheep’s milk. Pecorino Romano, despite its name, is now mostly made in Sardinia, though some production remains in Lazio. It’s aged for at least five months and has an intensely salty, sharp flavor that makes it perfect for grating over pasta, particularly traditional Roman dishes like cacio e pepe and carbonara. Pecorino Toscano, from Tuscany, is milder and comes in both young (fresco) and aged (stagionato) versions.

Southern Italy brings us the fresh cheeses that are central to Italian cuisine. Mozzarella di Bufala, made from the milk of water buffalo in Campania, is nothing like the low-moisture mozzarella on most pizzas. Fresh buffalo mozzarella is soft, milky, and slightly tangy, with a delicate texture that pulls apart in tender strands. It’s meant to be eaten within a day or two of being made, often with nothing more than good olive oil, fresh tomatoes, and basil.

Burrata takes mozzarella one step further—it’s essentially a pouch of mozzarella filled with cream and soft curd, creating an even more luxurious experience. When you cut into a burrata, the creamy interior spills out, and it’s absolutely heavenly with ripe tomatoes and crusty bread.

Provolone comes in many forms, from mild and smooth Provolone Dolce to aged and sharp Provolone Piccante. Ricotta, meaning “recooked,” is technically not a cheese at all—it’s made from the whey left over from making other cheeses. Fresh ricotta is creamy and slightly sweet, essential for lasagna, cannoli, and countless other Italian dishes.

Italian cheesemaking also gave us the pasta filata technique—the stretching and pulling of hot curds that creates mozzarella’s characteristic texture. This method is used for several Italian cheeses, including scamorza (smoked or unsmoked) and caciocavallo, which is shaped and hung to age, developing a firmer texture and more pronounced flavor.

Switzerland: Alpine Perfection

Swiss cheese production is defined by the Alps. The long tradition of alpine cheesemaking developed because milk couldn’t be transported easily from high mountain pastures to lowland markets—but cheese could. Swiss cheeses tend to be firm, aged varieties that travel well and showcase the flavors of alpine meadows.

Emmental is what most people picture when they think of “Swiss cheese”—a firm, pale yellow cheese dotted with large holes. Those holes, called “eyes,” form when bacteria produce carbon dioxide gas during aging, creating bubbles in the cheese. Authentic Emmental from Switzerland is nutty and slightly sweet, much more flavorful than mass-produced versions.

Gruyère is arguably Switzerland’s most versatile cheese. Made in the canton of Fribourg, it’s aged for at least five months, developing a complex, slightly grainy texture and flavors that range from nutty to earthy. Gruyère is essential for proper fondue (along with Emmental), and it melts beautifully in French onion soup. Interestingly, Swiss Gruyère has very small holes or sometimes none at all—those large holes are characteristic of Emmental, not Gruyère.

Appenzeller, from northeastern Switzerland, is one of the country’s oldest cheeses, with records dating back over 700 years. It’s a washed-rind cheese, bathed during aging in a secret mixture of wine, spices, and herbs that gives it a distinctive flavor and golden-orange rind. Each producer has their own secret recipe for this washing mixture.

Raclette is both a cheese and a dish. The cheese itself is semi-firm with a creamy texture, but the traditional way to serve it is to hold a half-wheel near heat until the surface melts, then scrape the melted cheese onto plates of boiled potatoes, pickles, and cured meats. The name comes from the French verb racler, meaning “to scrape.”

Sbrinz is Switzerland’s oldest hard cheese, with a history dating back at least 2,000 years. It’s aged for a minimum of 18 months, often much longer, becoming very hard and granular—similar to Parmigiano-Reggiano but with its own distinctive nutty flavor.

The Netherlands: Trading Tradition

Dutch cheese has been a major export commodity for centuries. The town of Gouda has held a cheese market every Thursday since 1395, where enormous wheels of cheese are still traded using traditional methods involving hand claps and wooden carriers.

Gouda is the most famous Dutch cheese, accounting for more than half of the country’s cheese production. Young Gouda (aged a few weeks) is mild, creamy, and slightly sweet. As it ages, it becomes harder, darker, and more complex—aged Gouda (2 years or more) is crunchy with tyrosine crystals and has an almost caramel-like sweetness along with deep, complex flavors.

Edam, traditionally coated in red wax, is another Dutch classic. It’s similar to Gouda but made with partially skimmed milk, giving it a slightly lower fat content and firmer texture. The round shape made it easy to stack in ships’ holds, which helped make Edam a successful export cheese during the Golden Age of Dutch trade.

Leiden (or Leyden) is a spiced cheese, traditionally made with cumin seeds, though caraway is now more common. The spices give it a distinctive flavor that’s quite different from other Dutch cheeses.

Spain: Regional Character

Spanish cheese reflects the country’s diverse geography and strong regional identities. Spain produces excellent cheeses from cow, goat, and sheep milk, often mixing milk types in ways that other countries don’t.

Manchego is Spain’s most famous cheese, made exclusively from the milk of Manchega sheep in the La Mancha region (yes, Don Quixote’s La Mancha). It’s aged for a minimum of 60 days and up to 2 years, developing a distinctive buttery, nutty flavor with a slight tang. The traditional rind shows the zigzag pattern of the esparto grass baskets that were once used to drain the curds.

Mahón, from the island of Menorca, has a unique square shape with rounded edges. Young Mahón is soft and mild; aged versions become firmer and more piquant. Traditionally, the rind is rubbed with butter, oil, or paprika during aging.

Idiazábal, from the Basque Country and Navarre, is a pressed cheese made from raw sheep’s milk. Some versions are lightly smoked, giving them a distinctive flavor that pairs beautifully with cider or Basque wine.

Cabrales is Spain’s answer to Roquefort—a powerful blue cheese from Asturias, traditionally aged in limestone caves in the Picos de Europa mountains. It can be made from cow’s milk, goat’s milk, sheep’s milk, or a blend, and it develops an intensely strong, spicy flavor.

Tetilla, from Galicia, is named for its shape, which resembles a small breast. It’s a semi-soft cheese with a mild, creamy flavor and slightly acidic finish.

United Kingdom and Ireland: Island Traditions

The British Isles have a long cheesemaking tradition, though it suffered when many farmhouse producers went out of business in the mid-20th century. Fortunately, there’s been a renaissance of artisan cheesemaking in recent decades.

I’ve written extensively about cheddar from around the world, including traditional English farmhouse cheddar made in Somerset. Beyond cheddar, England produces several other notable cheeses.

Stilton is Britain’s most famous blue cheese, with a rich, creamy texture and complex flavor that’s less salty than Roquefort. Only cheese made in Derbyshire, Leicestershire, or Nottinghamshire using traditional methods can be called Stilton—it’s been protected since 1996. The cheese develops its blue veins naturally as it ages, without being pierced.

Wensleydale, from Yorkshire, is crumbly and slightly honey-sweet. It’s traditionally eaten with fruitcake or apple pie in its native region. The character Wallace, from the animated series “Wallace and Gromit,” helped revive interest in this cheese in the 1990s.

Red Leicester has a distinctive orange color (from annatto) and a nutty, slightly sweet flavor. It’s named for the city of Leicester in the East Midlands. Cheshire is one of England’s oldest recorded cheeses, dating back to Roman times. It’s crumbly with a slightly salty, tangy flavor.

Caerphilly, a Welsh cheese, is young and mild with a lemony tang. It was traditionally popular with Welsh miners, who could eat it with one hand while working. Double Gloucester is mellow and buttery, famously used in the annual cheese-rolling competition at Cooper’s Hill.

In Ireland, farmhouse cheesemaking has experienced a remarkable revival since the 1970s. Cashel Blue is a creamy, mild blue cheese that’s less intense than Stilton or Roquefort. Dubliner is a modern Irish cheese with a sweet, nutty flavor and a texture similar to aged cheddar—you can read more about it in my cheddar guide. Coolea, inspired by Dutch Gouda, is made in County Cork and has developed its own distinctive character.

Germany and Austria: Northern Traditions

German and Austrian cheeses may not be as internationally famous as French or Italian varieties, but they have their own distinctive traditions, often influenced by neighboring countries.

Limburger is perhaps Germany’s most notorious cheese—famous for its powerful smell. This washed-rind cheese is bathed in brine during aging, encouraging the growth of the same bacteria found on human skin, which creates its characteristic aroma. Despite the strong smell, the flavor is actually quite mild and creamy. In the United States, Monroe, Wisconsin has become the unlikely Limburger capital, home to the last remaining American producer.

Butterkäse (“butter cheese”) is exactly what it sounds like—incredibly smooth and creamy, with a mild, buttery flavor. It’s popular throughout Germany and Austria as an everyday eating cheese.

Bergkäse, meaning “mountain cheese,” is an Alpine-style cheese similar to Swiss varieties, with a firm texture and nutty flavor. Tilsit, named after a town in East Prussia (now in Russia), is a semi-hard cheese with small irregular holes and a mild, slightly tangy flavor.

Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean: Ancient Flavors

Greek cheese has ancient roots, and some varieties have remained essentially unchanged for thousands of years.

Feta is Greece’s most famous contribution to the cheese world. True Greek feta must be made from sheep’s milk or a mixture of sheep and goat milk, and it must be aged in brine for at least two months. This gives it that characteristic tangy, salty flavor and crumbly texture. Danish and American “feta” are often made from cow’s milk and taste quite different—they lack the richness and complexity of authentic Greek feta.

Kasseri is a semi-hard cheese with a smooth texture and mild, buttery flavor. It’s made from sheep’s milk or a mixture of sheep and goat milk, and it’s often used in saganaki, where it’s fried until golden.

Halloumi, traditionally from Cyprus, has become popular worldwide because of its unique property: it doesn’t melt when heated. The cheese is cooked during production, which changes its protein structure and allows it to be grilled or fried without losing its shape. It squeaks when you bite into it and has a mild, slightly salty flavor.

Manouri is a softer, creamier cheese made from whey with added milk or cream. It’s less salty than feta and has a smooth, almost spreadable texture with a mild, milky flavor.

The New World: Innovation and Tradition

Cheese production in the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand has evolved from simply copying European styles to developing distinctive regional characters of their own.

In the United States, artisan cheesemaking has exploded over the past few decades. Vermont, Wisconsin, and California have emerged as major cheese-producing regions, each with their own character. Vermont is particularly known for its cheddars—I’ve explored several excellent Vermont producers in my cheddar guide. American cheesemakers are now winning international competitions with both traditional-style cheeses and innovative new varieties.

Canada produces excellent cheese, particularly in Quebec, where French traditions remain strong. Canadian cheddar, especially aged varieties, can compete with the best in the world—again, you can read more about this in my cheddar guide.

Australia and New Zealand have developed thriving cheese industries, benefiting from excellent dairy farming conditions. New Zealand produces some particularly good cheddars, often with a slightly different character than British or Vermont varieties, reflecting the unique pastures and climate of New Zealand.

Practical Wisdom: Selecting, Storing, and Serving Cheese

Knowing about cheese is wonderful, but the real joy comes from bringing it into your home and sharing it with the people you care about. Over the years, I’ve learned some practical lessons about working with cheese—some from books and experts, others from my own trial and error in the kitchen.

Selecting Cheese: Finding Quality

The best place to buy cheese is a specialty cheese shop or a well-stocked cheese counter at a good grocery store, where knowledgeable staff can guide you and where you can often taste before buying. These shops typically store their cheese properly and have good turnover, which means you’re getting fresher product. The people working there are usually passionate about cheese and happy to share their knowledge—I’ve learned so much just by asking questions.

When you’re at a cheese counter, don’t be shy about asking for recommendations. Tell them what you’re planning—are you making a cheese board for guests? Looking for something to melt into a gratin? Want to try something new? A good cheesemonger will steer you in the right direction. They can also let you taste small samples, which is invaluable when you’re deciding between unfamiliar cheeses.

If you’re buying pre-packaged cheese, look for a few key indicators of quality. The packaging should be intact with no signs of excessive moisture or mold (except on blue cheeses or bloomy rinds, where it’s intentional). Check the production date if it’s listed—fresher is generally better, especially for soft cheeses. Look for protected designation labels like PDO, AOP, or DOP if you want traditional, regionally-authentic cheese.

For hard cheeses like Parmigiano-Reggiano or aged cheddar, buying a wedge cut from a larger wheel is always better than pre-grated cheese. Pre-grated cheese is coated with cellulose to prevent clumping, which affects both flavor and melting properties. A wedge of cheese stays fresh longer and tastes significantly better. Yes, you have to grate it yourself, but it takes just a few extra minutes and the difference is remarkable.

Storing Cheese: Keeping It Fresh

Cheese is alive—it’s full of beneficial bacteria and molds that continue working even after you bring it home. Your goal in storing cheese is to keep it fresh while allowing it to breathe. Plastic wrap is convenient, but it’s not ideal for cheese because it traps moisture and prevents air circulation, which can lead to off-flavors and unwanted mold growth.

The best option is cheese paper, which is specifically designed to maintain the right balance of moisture and airflow. If you don’t have cheese paper, parchment paper or wax paper works reasonably well—wrap the cheese loosely, then place it in a partially opened plastic bag or container. This provides some protection while still allowing air circulation.

Different types of cheese have different storage needs. Fresh cheeses like ricotta, mozzarella, or chèvre should be kept in their original containers with the brine or liquid they came in, and they should be used within a few days of opening. Soft-ripened cheeses like Brie or Camembert can be wrapped in their original paper or in parchment and stored in the warmest part of your refrigerator (usually the vegetable drawer). They’ll continue to ripen, so keep an eye on them.

Semi-soft and semi-hard cheeses are the most forgiving. Wrap them well and store them in the refrigerator, and they’ll keep for several weeks. Hard cheeses like aged cheddar or Parmigiano-Reggiano can last for months if properly stored. If you notice a small spot of mold on hard cheese, you can simply cut it off—remove about an inch around the moldy area, and the rest of the cheese is perfectly safe to eat.

Can you freeze cheese? Yes, but with caveats. Freezing changes the texture of cheese, making it more crumbly when thawed. This doesn’t matter much if you’re planning to use the cheese for cooking—frozen and thawed cheese melts just fine. But for eating fresh, frozen cheese is noticeably different. If you do freeze cheese, wrap it very well to prevent freezer burn, and use it within a few months.

One more tip: cheese tastes best at room temperature. The cold of the refrigerator mutes flavors and makes fats firmer, so cheese straight from the fridge never tastes as good as it should. Take cheese out of the refrigerator 30 minutes to an hour before serving, depending on the type—soft cheeses need less time, hard cheeses need more.

Serving Cheese: Creating Memorable Experiences

I’ve written extensively about creating charcuterie boards, so I won’t repeat everything here, but I do want to share some specific thoughts about serving cheese.

When you’re assembling a cheese board, variety is key. Try to include different types of milk (cow, goat, sheep), different textures (soft, semi-firm, hard), and different flavor profiles (mild, sharp, blue). Three to five cheeses is usually a good range for a gathering—more than that can be overwhelming.

The order in which you taste cheese matters. Start with the mildest cheeses and work your way toward stronger flavors. Begin with fresh or mild cheeses like young goat cheese or Brie, move on to medium-aged cheeses like Gouda or Manchego, and finish with the most intense cheeses like aged cheddar or blue cheese. This way, each cheese gets to shine without being overwhelmed by the one before it.

As for portions, figure about 1 to 2 ounces of cheese per person if cheese is part of a larger spread, or 3 to 4 ounces per person if cheese is the main event. It’s better to have a little too much than too little—leftover cheese keeps well and can be used in cooking.

The accompaniments you choose can enhance or detract from the cheese. Good bread or crackers provide a neutral base that lets the cheese flavors come through. Fresh and dried fruits add sweetness that contrasts nicely with salty or tangy cheeses—grapes, apple slices, dried apricots, and figs all work beautifully. Nuts add crunch and their own subtle flavors. A drizzle of honey is wonderful with salty, aged cheeses or tangy blue cheeses. Cured meats complement cheese naturally, which is why charcuterie boards pair them together so effectively.

Don’t forget to provide the right tools. Each cheese should have its own knife to prevent flavor transfer. Soft cheeses need spreaders or knives with holes in the blade to prevent sticking. Hard cheeses can be pre-cut into chunks or served with a sturdy knife for guests to cut their own. A cheese plane is handy for shaving thin slices of semi-hard cheeses.

Cooking with Cheese: Practical Tips

Cheese behaves differently when heated, and understanding these differences will help you choose the right cheese for your recipe.

Melting properties vary widely. Young, high-moisture cheeses tend to melt smoothly. Aged, low-moisture cheeses can become oily or grainy when heated. For smooth melting, stick with cheeses like Gruyère, Fontina, young Gouda, mozzarella, or Monterey Jack. For a good grilled cheese or quesadilla, you want something that melts easily and has good flavor.

When you’re making a cheese sauce, the key is to melt the cheese gently over low heat. High heat can cause the proteins in cheese to seize up, creating a grainy, separated sauce. Start with a base (like a béchamel), remove it from direct heat, and then stir in grated cheese until it melts. The residual heat is usually enough—you don’t need to put it back on the burner.

For grating and shredding, the temperature of the cheese matters. Cold cheese from the refrigerator grates more easily and cleanly than room-temperature cheese, which can become sticky and clump in your grater. For the finest grate—like for dusting over pasta—use a microplane. For shredding, a box grater works perfectly well.

I’ve written a whole guide about cooking with cheese rinds, but here’s the quick version: the rinds from hard cheeses like Parmigiano-Reggiano, Pecorino Romano, or aged Gruyère are incredibly flavorful. Instead of throwing them away, save them in your freezer. Toss a rind into soups, stews, or sauces while they simmer—it adds amazing depth and umami flavor. Just remember to remove it before serving, like you would a bay leaf.

When a recipe calls for cheese, using the type specified usually matters. If a recipe calls for Parmigiano-Reggiano, substituting the pre-grated stuff in the green can really isn’t the same. When Italian recipes call for Pecorino Romano, using Parmesan changes the dish—Pecorino is saltier and sharper, which is exactly what certain recipes need. That said, feel free to experiment once you understand the basic principles. Just know that different cheeses will give you different results.

The Culture of Cheese: Identity, Celebration, and Future

Cheese and Identity

In many parts of the world, cheese is more than just food—it’s a source of regional pride and cultural identity. The French concept of terroir captures this beautifully. Terroir refers to how the complete natural environment—soil, climate, altitude, local microorganisms—affects a food product. You can’t make authentic Comté anywhere except the Jura mountains, not because the recipe is secret, but because the place itself is part of what makes the cheese what it is.

This connection between place and product is why protected designation systems matter. When you buy PDO Parmigiano-Reggiano or AOC Roquefort, you’re not just buying a cheese—you’re buying the result of centuries of accumulated knowledge, passed down through generations of cheesemakers who perfected their craft in that specific location. You’re supporting traditional methods and small producers who maintain these traditions against the pressure to industrialize.

Artisan cheesemakers often speak of their work almost like farming—they’re not just manufacturing a product, they’re stewarding a tradition and nurturing a living food. The bacteria and molds they work with have often been in their caves or cellars for generations. The animals that provide the milk graze on local pastures. The techniques they use were learned from their parents or grandparents. This continuity matters to them, and it shows up in the quality of the cheese.

Celebrations and Rituals

Throughout Europe, cheese is woven into celebrations and seasonal traditions. In Switzerland, raclette parties are a winter tradition—friends gather around as cheese is melted and scraped onto plates. In the Netherlands, cheese markets are tourist attractions but also living traditions that connect modern Dutch people to their history. In France, a proper meal isn’t complete without the cheese course, served after the main course but before dessert.

Many regions hold cheese festivals and competitions. The annual cheese-rolling race at Cooper’s Hill in Gloucestershire, England, where participants chase a wheel of Double Gloucester down a steep hill, has been held for over 200 years. The World Championship Cheese Contest in Wisconsin draws entries from around the globe. These events celebrate cheese as more than just a commodity—they honor the skill, tradition, and community built around cheesemaking.

In my own life, Peter and I have built our own small traditions around cheese. Our habit of ordering charcuterie boards wherever we travel has become a way to explore new places through their local products. When we visit the Lodge at Spruce Peak in Stowe, trying their cheese board has become as much a part of the experience as the mountains themselves. These moments of sharing good cheese with people we care about—that’s where cheese transcends being simply food and becomes part of memory and connection.

The Future of Cheese

Cheesemaking faces challenges in the modern world. Climate change affects the grasses that animals eat and the environments where cheese ages. Regulations meant to ensure food safety sometimes conflict with traditional methods—many European cheeses are made with raw milk, which is restricted or banned in some countries. The economics of small-scale production make it hard for artisan cheesemakers to compete with industrial operations.

Yet there are also reasons for optimism. In the United States, the number of artisan cheesemakers has exploded over the past few decades, as people rediscover the value of traditional, handcrafted food. Young people in Europe are choosing to become cheesemakers, keeping family operations going or starting new ones. Consumers increasingly seek out quality over convenience, willing to pay more for cheese that’s made well and tastes better.

Innovation continues as well. Cheesemakers experiment with new techniques while respecting tradition. Some are exploring more sustainable practices, like using sheep and goats that have lower environmental impacts than cattle. Others are reviving nearly extinct varieties of cheese or finding new ways to make traditional cheeses more accessible to modern consumers.

The fundamental appeal of cheese—its combination of nutrition, preservation, and incredible flavor—hasn’t changed in thousands of years. As long as people care about what they eat and where their food comes from, there will be a place for well-made cheese.

Conclusion: Your Own Cheese Journey

We’ve traveled from ancient Mesopotamia to modern cheese counters, from the caves of Roquefort to the alpine pastures of Switzerland, exploring the history, science, and culture of cheese. But the real journey begins when you bring cheese into your own kitchen and start discovering what you love.

Maybe you’ll start simple, trying a few different styles of cheese to understand your preferences. Perhaps you’ll develop a passion for a particular region or type—I certainly didn’t expect my curiosity about charcuterie boards to lead me down the rabbit hole of exploring cheddar from around the world. You might find joy in creating beautiful cheese boards for friends and family, or in discovering new ways to cook with cheese.

The wonderful thing about cheese is that there’s always something new to discover. Even after years of exploring, I still find cheeses I’ve never tried, learn techniques I didn’t know about, and taste combinations that surprise me. Each region, each producer, each wheel of cheese is unique—shaped by place, tradition, and the hands that made it.

So I encourage you to be curious. Ask questions at the cheese counter. Try something unfamiliar. Visit cheese shops when you travel. Pay attention to what you like and what you don’t—there’s no wrong answer, just your own preferences. Share good cheese with people you care about. And remember that every piece of cheese you enjoy carries with it centuries of human ingenuity, regional tradition, and the work of dedicated people who care deeply about their craft.

Cheese is one of humanity’s great gifts to itself—a way of transforming something simple and perishable into something complex and lasting. Whether you’re spreading fresh chèvre on morning toast, grating Parmigiano-Reggiano over pasta, or savoring aged Gouda with a glass of wine, you’re participating in a tradition that stretches back thousands of years and forward into the future.

Here’s to your own cheese journey, wherever it takes you.

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